Tables to Political Behavlor of University Students in India: a thesis submitted as partial requirement for the degree Doctor of Philosophy, Department of Sociology, University of California

Table 1 : PER CENT WHO PLAN TO VOTE FOR THE COMMUNIST PARTY IN 1957 LOK SABHA ELECTIONS, CONTROLLING EDUCATION.

Source: Monthly Reports, Public Opinion Survey Vol. 2, No. 4-6 Jan.-Apr.1957, Indian Institute of Public Opinion, Bombay.
  Illiterate Under-Matric Matric Graduate
Andhra 22. 16.3 2.8 --
Bihar - - - - - - - -
Bombay - - - - - -  
Kerala 33.9 28.5 26.5  
Madras 12.5 6.1 2.4 4.2
Orissa 1.0 -- -- --
Punjab 6.6 6.4 -- 4.2
Rajasthan -- - 2.5 2.4
Uttar Pradesh - - - - - - --
W. Bengal 5.1 12.0 13.8 22.2
All-India 7.2 7.1 5.5 3.9

Table 2: COMMUNIST PARTY OF INDIA SUPPORT, CONTROLLING URBANISM, EDUCATION.

If there were an election today, for which party would you vote for the Lok Sabha? Per cent who reply CPI:
URBAN RURAL
Illit. Under-Matric Matric Grad. Illit. Under-Matric Matric Grad
(376) (414) (211) (185) (1026) (523) (176) (75)
6% 6% 12% 15% 4% 8% 13% 19%

Source: Monthly Reports, Public Opinion Survey No. 45-48, April 1959, Institute of Public Opinion, Bombay.

Table 3: EDUCATION AND PARTY PREFERENCE: ALL INDIA SURVEY

Source: Institute of Public Opinion, Monthly Report March, 1967.
  No education Some primary Finished secondary College some or all Unspecified
Whole sample 43% 34% 21% 4% 8%
Congress 36% 37% 13% 5% 9%
PSP/SSP 30% 44% 17% 7% 2%
Communists 48% 38% 10% 3% 1%
Jana Sangh 30% 10% 40% 10% 10%
1962
whole sample 36% 38% 15% 9% 2%
Congress 28% 45% 16% 9% 2%
PSP/SSP 35 42 12 10 1
Communists 31 44 17 8 -
Swatantra 9 23 31 36 1
Jana Sangh 21 46 14 19 -
1967
Whole sample 17% 28% 39% 16% -
Congress 27% 42% 15% 16% -
PSP/SSP 25 37 18 20 -
Communists 25 40 14 21 -
Swatantra 28 36 17 19 -
Jana Sangh 30 41 15 14 -

Table 4: POLITICAL EFFECTIVENESS

"If you tried to influence the national government, how likely is it that any good would come of it? Per cent who answer:
  No formal education Some primary Some secondary College/technical Total
  (465) (540) (668) (321) (l994)
Very likely 8% 16% 28% 30% 19%
Moderately 3% 16% 25% 39% 20%
Not at all 2% 3%   4% 3%
Don't know 3% 6% 8% 4% 5%
Wouldn't try 82% 58% 31% 17% 53%

Source: Monthly Reports, Public Opinion Survey No. 112-113, January, February 1965.

Table 5: ATTITUDE TOWARD POSSIBLE COMMUNIST GOVERNMENT

"Now suppose the CPI were to get control of the government. Do you think that a communist government might harm the country or that it would have little effect, or that it might help?"
  No formal education Some primary Some secondary College/technical Total
  (465) (540) (668) (321) (l994)
Harm 5% 22% 48% 47% 30%
No effect 3% 7% 6% 7% 6%
Help 6% 11% 18% 12% 10%
Couldn't happen 7% 6% 9% 12% 8%
No answer 80% 55% 26% 21% 46%

Source: Monthly Reports, Public Opinion Survey No. 112-113, January, February 1965, Indian Institute of Public Opinion.

Table 6 : ECONOMIC DETERIORATION AMONG PARTISANS

"Has your economic condition improved or deteriorated since 1952?"
Per cent who say it has deteriorated, Controlling party preference. Indian national sample, 1957.
Congress (l4l6) 27%
Praja Socialist (55) 49%
CPI (179) 51%

Source: Indian Institute of Public Opinion. Monthly Reports No. 4, Jan-Apr. 1957

Table 7 : EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC DETERIORATION

"Has your economic condition improved or deteriorated since 1952?" Per cent who say it has deteriorated, controlling education. Indian national sample, 1957.
Illiterate (122) 43%
Under-Matric (977) 34%
Matric (304) 27%
Graduate (123) 20%

Source: Monthly Report, Indian Institute of Public Opinion, No.4-7, Jan-April, 1957.

Table 8 : EDUCATION AND RETATIVE DEPRIVATION

"Has your standard of living achieved your expectations or not?"
All-India, 1959. Urban respondents only.
Percent who say yes:
Illiterate (376) 10%
Under-matric (414) 15%
Matric (211) 27%
Graduate (185) 22%

Source: Monthly Reports, Indian Institute of Public Opinion, 45-48, April, 1969.

Table 10 : PARENTS' OR GUARDIAN'S INCOME

INDIAN STUDENTS
(ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES)		 AMERICAN STUDENTS
(CORNELL SAMPLE)
Less than Rs. 100/mo 17% Less than $3000 Yr. 7%
Rs. 100-300/mo. 33% $3000-$5000/yr 18%
Rs.300-500 18% $5000-7500 22%
Rs. 500-1000 16% $7500-$10,000 18%
More than Rs. 100 10% $10,000-20,000 18%
No answer 5% $20,000 and more 8%

Table 11 : AGE AT LAST BIRTHDAY

  INDIAN STUDENTS
(ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES SAMPLE)		 AMERICAN STUDENTS
(CORNELL SAMPLE)
TOTAL SAMPLE UNDERGRADS ONLY
(2044) (555) (4430)
15-19 younger 38% 54% 30%
20-25 49% 35% 63%
over 25 8% 5% 3%
No answer 5% 5% 4%

Table 12 : SIZE OF HOME TOWN

INDIAN STUDENTS
(ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES)		 AMERICAN STUDENTS
(CORNELL SAMPLE)
Less than 500 persons 7% Less than 2500 14%
500-2000 17% 2500-5000 9%
2,000-10,000 18% 5000-15,000 15%
10,000-50,000 19% 15,000-50,000 20%
50,000-100,000 9% 50,000-200,000 14%
over 100,000 24% 200,000 and more 29%
No answer 7%    

Table 13 : ECONOMIC IDEOLOGY OF AMERICAN STUDENTS AND OF INDIAN STUDENTS

Percent who agree that:

INDIAN STUDENTS
ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES (2044)		 AMERICAN STUDENTS
CORNELL SAMPLE (4430)
"Democracy depends upon capitalism" 29% 68%
"The welfare state tends to destroy individual initiative." 23% 71%

Table 14 : INDIANS BELIEVED THE GOVERNMENT TO BE OF VALUE THAN DID AMERICAN STUDENTS:

Per cent of students who agree that:
  INDIAN STUDENTS
ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES		 AMERICANS
CORNELL SAMPLE
     
  (2044) (4430)
"Human lives are too important to be sacrificed for any form of government" 57% 14%
"Public officials are not interested in the problems of the average man." 77% 29%

Table 15 MAJOR FIELDS OF STUDY

  INDIA COLOMBIA PAKISTAN IRAN
Science, medicine, engineer 21% 32% 34% 41%
Philosophy, psych., educ. 12 9 6 4
Law, pre-law 7 14 9 6
Commerce, administration 5 3 15 3
Political science 5 - 9 3
English, literature 3 - 13 4
History, geography 2 - 8 2
languages 1 3 - 7
other 13 8 3 18
not given 21      

Table 15a: FIELDS 0F STUDY IN INDIA OVER 13 YEARS

(Source: UNESCO Statistical Yearbook, 1965, p. 282-3)
  Total students Not specified Humanities Education Fine Arts Agriculture Law Social Sciences Natural Science Engineering Medicine
1949 371,800 .1% 81% 1% - 1% 3% 7% - 3% 3%
1955 736,124 2% 78% 2% .1% .1% 3% 8% - 3%  
1962 1,2O7,660 1% 44% 2% - 3% 2% 9% 29% 5%  

Table 16 : OCCUPATIONAL VALUES AND INCOME OF PARENTS

Eleven Universities
  Less than Rs. 100/mo. Rs.100-300/mo. Rs. 300-500/mo. Rs. 500-1000/mo. Rs. 1000 or more
Per cent who: (3140) (683) (373) (330) (244)
Took first division grades in intermediate examination 10% 17% 18% 18% 14%
Prefer to work in own business 18% 20% 26% 28% 25%
Prefer to work in educational institution 35% 26% 22% 23% 16%
Prefer to work in social service 12% 9% 10% 7% 7%
Find it important to know plans in advance 65% 59% 60% 54% 48%
Regard hard work as important for success 63% 59% 56% 56% 56%
Regard personality as most important for success 25% 30% 35% 34% 42%
Regard respect for superiors as most important for success 14% 13% 12% 10% 9%
Regard ability to get along as important 61% 66% 66% 67% 69%
Consider it highly important to earn money 22% 25% 30% 31% 31%
Consider it highly important to have opportunity to be creative, original 47% 54% 51 56 61
Consider it highly important to have chance to work with people. 43% 4l 38 37 30
Consider it highly important to have secure future 38 43 42 48 53
Consider it highly Important to be able to help others 62 57 57 56 48
Consider it highly Important to be able to take part in caste affairs 13 7 8 6 5
Consider it highly important to take part in politics 22 18 15 15 10
Consider it highly important to have relation to religion. 15 10 13 12 9

Plate 1: Political Profile of Indian Universities

Political Prifle of Indian Universities

Table 19 : RANK ORDER OF UNIVERSITIES BY SUM OF PER CENT PARTICIPATING, INFORMED, MODERN, AND LEFTIST

(Eleven Universities)
    Sum score
1. Travancore 208
2. Calcutta 205
3. Osmania 183
4. Bombay 174
5. Banaras 167
6. Lucknow l64
7. Aligarh 152
8. Agra 151
9. Delhi 150
10. Nagpur 135
11. Madras 116

Table 19a : LEFTISM AND UNIVERSITIES, CONTROLLING HOME STATE'S CPI VOTING RECORD IN 1952

  Students who Came From Highly Leftism States* Students Who Came From All Other States
Aligarh (12) ** (138) 39%
Banares (57) 42% (198) 40%
Bombay (30) 33% (202) 23%
Calcutta (133) 53% (71) 32%
Delhi (70) 23% (105) 21%
Lucknow (10) ** (334) 36%
Madras (147) 14% (19) 16%
Nagpur (11) ** (43) 28%
Osmania (10) ** (142) 30%
Travancore (229) 42% (10) **
Agra (4) ** (74) 41%

* West Bengal, Madras, Travancore, Punjab

** Too few to percentage

Table 19B : POLITICS AND RESOURCES IN UNIVERSITIES

Universities ranked on political involvement sum score Per cent students without extra-curricular activities Student-teacher Ratio Number of students in thousands Per cent students who think university doing poor job Number of colleges Mean number of students per college Recurring expenditure per pupil per year
Travancore 35 15 38 12 75 506 466
Calcutta 30 22 137 24 149 919 373
Osmania 17 14 19 1? 34 500 667
Bombay 36 21 48 11 33 1390 512
Banaras 34 14 10 9 21 476 1514
Lucknow 42 18 13 9 14 857 521
Aligarh 12 12 5 7 1 5000 1240
Agra 25 15 41 12 73 506 545
Delhi 20 12 17 11 23 608 1105
Nagpur 33 19 22 i6 34 529 659
Madras 33 11 51 6 108 467 792

* Number of colleges is taken from the Handbook of Indian Universities, 1958

** We have deducted the non-recurring expenses, such as libraries, buildings, expansion of equipment, etc.

Table 20 : CORRELATION BETWEEN UNIVERSITIES ORDER ON FIVE ATTRIBUTES AND THEIR ORDER ON THE SUM OF FOUR OF THESE ATTRIBUTES (PARTICIPATION, INFORMATION, MODERNISM, LEFTISM).

Correlation Between Sum Score and:
Participation .55
Information .92
Modernism .84
Leftism .96
Excitement .01

Table 21 : CHARACTERISTICS DIFFERENTIATING THE STUDENT POPULATIONS OF HIGH, MEDIUM AND LOW POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES

Per cent of students who:

HIGH MEDIUM LOW
Accept family customs 38% 35% 51%
Need religious faith 58 65 68
Desire opportunity for leadership 21 25 30
Desire adventure 17 31 28
Live in private lodgings 12 5 4
Seek employment 18 18 11
Are employed 15 11 9
Parents' income less than Rs. 300/mo. 58 50 39
From towns of less than 10,000 population 50 39 39
Brahmin 27 30 34
19 years old or less 33 40 4l
undergraduate 22 26 37
First division, matriculation examination. 19 30 27

Table 22 : POLITICAL INVOLVEMENT AT AGE

Percent who are high in:

15-19 2O-24 25-29 30-34
  (782) (995) (128) (23)
Participation 59% 59% 56% 39%
Information 39% 54% 46% 47%
Excitement 58% 60% 57% 30%
Modernism 33% 42% 43% 32%
Leftism 22% 25% 32% 22%

Table 23 : DEGREE COURSE BY POLITICAL INVOLVEMENT

Percent who are high in:

BA I BA II MA I MA II Final
  (285) (269) (386) (375) (185)
Participation 47% 48% 56% 55% 44%
Well-informed 38 48 43 49 54
Excitement 56 61 56 61 58
Modernism 32 28 40 40 51
Leftist 16 22 29 38 20

Table 24 : LEFTISM, CLASS IN SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY CONTEXT

  Highly Politicized Universities Medium Politicized Universities Low Politicized Universities
  Undergraduate Graduates Undergraduate Graduates Undergraduate Graduates
  (131) (349) (276) (466) (146) (130)
% Left 21% 39% 29% 29% 15% 16%

Table 25 : LEFTISM, CLASS IN SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY CONTEXT (USA)

(Cornell Study)
  More Leftist Universities (Harvard, Wayne, U.C.L.A., Fisk, Wesleyan) Less Leftist Universities (Cornell, Michigan, Texas, Dartmouth, Yale, N. Carolina)
  Year in School Year in School
  1 2 3 4 5+ 1 2 3 4 5+
  (414) (397) (517) (482) (26) (698) (644) (661) (634) (99)
% Left 19 22 21 28 25 12 13 16 17 7

Table 26 : LEFTISM, CIASS IN SCHOOL, AGE AND THE PREVALENCE OF LEFTISM IN THE UNIVERSITY CONTEXT

  MORE LEFTIST UNIVERSITIES
(Calcutta, Travancore, Banaras, Lucknow, Bombay)		 LESS LEFTIST UNIVERSITIES
(Agra, Nagpur, Osmania, Aligarh, Delhi, Madras
  Undergraduate Graduate Undergraduate Graduate
  Younger Older Younger Older Younger Older Younger Older
  (182) (99) (220) (358) (158) (89) (125) (200)
% Left 32 27 43 47 34 19 28 28

Table 27 : PRIMORDIAL AND CONTEMPORARY INFLUENCES

  HIGHLY POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES PRIMORDIAL AND CONTEMPORARY MEDIUM POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES LOW POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
  HIGHLY LEFTIST MOTHER TONGUES LESS LEFTIST MOTHER TONGUES HIGHLY LEFTIST MOTHER TONGUES LESS LEFTIST MOTHER TONGUES HIGHLY LEFTIST MOTHER TONGUES LESS LEFTIST MOTHER TONGUES
  (449) (106) (325) (733) (71) (276)
% Left 32 15 25 23 16 13

Table 28 : COMMUNAL IDEOLOGY AND PARTY PREFERENCE

  CPI PSP CONGRESS JANA SANGH
  (492) (276) (979) (74)
"Intercaste marriage must be encouraged if the caste system is to be abolished."
Agree 83% 78% 75% 65%
Disagree l4% 16% 18% 26%
DK 2% 4% 5% 8%
"How can the disputes between India and Pakistan in regard to Kashmir be solved?"
Peaceful means 52% 54% 61% 20%
Military means 31% 24% 24% 58%
Economic sanctions 9% 14% 9% 13%
Other 8% 8% 7% 9%
NA -- 2% 2% 1%
"An insult to our National honor should always be punished even by war if necessary."
Agree 61% 61% 61% 83%
Disagree 32% 31% 29% 12%
DK 4% 5% 6% 4%
NA 3% 3% 4% 1%
"Muslims are treated better in India than in any other country."
Agree 64% 77% 77% 91%
Disagree 22% 11% 12% 3%
DK 12% 10% 9% 3%
NA 2% 2% 2% 3%

Table 29 : CPI PREFERENCE, CONTROLLING RURALISM AND EDUCATION

All-India Voter Sample*
"If there were an election today, for which party would you vote for the Lok Sabha? Per cent who reply, CPI:
URBAN RURAL
Illiterate Under Matric Matric Grad. Illiterate Under Matric Matric Grad.
(376) (414) (211) (186) (1026) (523) (176) (75)
6% 6% 12% 15% 4% 8% 13% 19%

Table 30 : POLITICAL INVOLVEMENT AMONG URBAN AND RURAL ILLITERATES, l96l.

(Ns not cited.)
Illiterates Urban Rural
Listen to public meetings 4% 9%
Listen to political leaders, candidates 4% 7%
Join demonstrations or rallies 3% 4%
Have an interest in politics 8% 12%

Table 31 : POLITICAL INTEREST, URBAN ORIGIN AND EDUCATION INDIAN PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY

Per cent who are interested in politics (N.s not cited)
  URBAN RURAL
  Illiterates Grad. Illiterates Grad.
l959 6% 62% 10% 76%
1961 9% 65% 12% 65%

Table 32 : RURALISM AND LEFTISM

Eleven Universities Sample
Per cent of students who are leftist, controlling home town population size
Less than 500 500-2000 2000-10,000 10,000-50,000 50,000-100,000 100,000+
(146) (248) (371) (381) (175) (494)
27% 40% 24% 23% 22% 20%

Table 33 : MOST IMPORTANT THREE ISSUES PACING INDIA

Eleven Universities Sample
"Here are some of the issues which college students consider among the most important ones facing the country today. Which three of these issues do you consider the most important?" Frequency with which each item was mentioned as one of the three most important issues:
1273 Growing more food
949 Banishing unemployment
934 Liquidating illiteracy
715 Abolishing corruption in government
568 Speeding industrialization
437 Taking steps to bring about peace and avoid a third world war
281 Abolishing communalism
238 Implementing land reform
200 Settling the Kashmir problem
181 Rehabilitating the refugees
173 Abolishing untouchability
67 Stopping racialism in South Africa
27 Determining the conditions (if any) of accepting aid from foreign countries

Table 34 : LAND REFORMISM AND LEFTISM IN THE DIFFERENT UNIVERSITY CONTEXTS

Eleven Universities Sample
Per cent who are Leftist:
HIGHLY POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
(Banaras, Calcutta, Osmania, Travancore, Bombay)		 LESS POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
(Aligarh, Delhi, Lucknow, Madras, Nagpur, Agra)
LAND REFORMIST ALL OTHERS LAND REFORMIST ALL OTHERS
(155) (921) (82) (864)
50% 35% 32% 29%

Table 35 : LIVING ACCOMMODATIONS, RURALISM, LEFTISM

Eleven Universities Sample
Per cent of students who are leftist:
Live with Parents Other relatives Hostel Private Lodgings
Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban
(205) (432) (84) (103) (4l6) (428) (90) (44)
32% 28% 35% 40% 38% 33% 44% 34%

Table 36 : M0DERN/TRADITI0NAL VALUES AND INCOME

Eleven Universities Sample
Per cent of students who agree with the following statements:
  Parents' Income in Rs.
  100 100-300 300-500 500-1000 1000+
  (340) (683) (373) (330) (224)
Women should not be admitted to the same university as men. 26% 19% 14% 15% 11%
There should be more freedom of association between men and women students at our universities. 71% 77% 78% 82% 86%
The joint family system is even today a most useful social institution. 68% 61% 56% 50% 52%
Inter-caste dining should be encouraged to increase communal amity and harmony. 76% 77% 85% 80% 66%
Inter-caste marriage should be encouraged to increase communal amity and harmony 59% 64% 61% 63% 65%
Divorce should be allowed in all Hindu castes 49% 55% 54% 62% 63%
Per cent of students who are high on "modernism" index 20% 32% 38% 42% 47%

Table 37 LEFTISM, PARENTS' INCOME

  HIGHLY POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES LESS POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
  Poorer Richer Poorer Richer
  (569) (461) (452) (485)
% Leftist 43% 31% 33% 28%

Table 38 : INCOME AND POLITICAL VALUES

Eleven Universities Sample
Monthly Parental Income in Rupees
Per cent of students who agree that:   <100 Rs. 100-300 300-500 500-1000 1000+
    (340) (363) (383) (330) (244)
Form of government best suited to India Parliamentary Democracy 21 20 26 24 27
Democracy 12 15 16 16 16
People's Democracy 27 23 19 18 16
Dictatorship 7 12 11 10 13
Socialism 18 18 16 19 19
Democracy depends upon Capitalism   29 27 30 30 34
Approve of India's foreign policy of Dynamic Neutrality   66 73 73 74 77

Table 39 : MODERNISM AND URBANISM*

Eleven Universities sample
% modern
HIGHLY POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES LESS POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
Rural Urban Rural Urban
(487) (476) (351) (531)
29% 36% 21% 28%

(*Because of coding procedure, we dichotomize at a population of 10,000, which differs from the practice of the Indian census, which divides rural from urban communities at the 5000 mark.)

Table 40 : MODERNISM POVERTY URBANISM, IN UNIVERSITIES

(Eleven Universities)
  HIGHLY POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
  POORER STUDENTS RICHER STUDENTS
  RURAL URBAN RURAL URBAN
  (321) (214) (160) (262)
% Modern 28% 32% 30% 40%
  LESS POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
  POORER STUDENTS RICHER STUDENTS
  RURAL URBAN RURAL URBAN
  (220) (141) (311) (311)
% Modern 24% 20% 31% 32%

Table 41 : RURALISM, LEFTISM IN UNIVERSITY CONTEXTS

  HIGHLY POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES LESS POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
  RURAL URBAN RURAL URBAN
  (487) (486) (351) (469)
% Leftist 42% 35% 31% 33%

Table 42 : MODERNISM, LEFTISM IN UNIVERSITY CONTEXTS

(Eleven Universities)
  HIGHLY POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES LESS POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
  Modern Traditional Modern Traditional
  (308) (655) (237) (647)
% Leftist 42% 36% 34% 28%

Table 43 RURALISM, MODERNISM, LEFTISM IN UNIVERSITY CONTEXTS

(Eleven Universities)
  HIGHLY POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES LESS POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
  RURAL URBAN RURAL URBAN
  MOD. TEAD. MOD. TRAD MOD. TRAD. MOD. TRAD.
  (137) (340) (171) (305) (94) (256) (142) (289)
% Left 40% 40% 36% 32% 37% 28% 32% 37%

Table 44 : POVERTY, MODERNISM, LEFTISM IN UNIVERSITIES

(Eleven Universities)
  HIGHLY POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES LESS POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
  POORER RICHER POORER RICHER
  MOD. TRAD. MOD. TRAD. MOD. TRAP. MOD. TRAD.
  (158) (377) (150) (278) (94) (336) (143) (309)
% Left 51% 40% 32% 31% 30% 30% 31% 25%

Table 45 : MODERNISM, ACCEPTANCE OF FAMILY CUSTOMS, LEFTISM IN UNIVERSITY CONTEXTS

(Eleven Universities)
  Highly Politicized Universities Less Politicized Universities
  MODERN TRADITIONAL MODERN TRADITIONAL
  ACCEPT BROKE ACCEPT BROKE ACCEPT BROKE ACCEPT BROKE
  (81) (264) (325) (407) (67) (191) (317) (389)
% LEFT 32% 44% 33% 36% 27% 40% 23% 33%

Table 46 : RURALISM, POVERTY, MODERNISM LEFTISM, IN UNIVERSITY CONTEXTS

(Eleven Universities)
HIGHLY POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
  RURAL URBAN
  POOR RICHER POOR RICHER
  MOD. TRAD. MOD. TRAD. MOD. TRAD. MOD. TRAD.
  (90) (231) (47) (119) (68) (146) (103) (159)
% LEFT 58% 41% 34% 35% 44% 34% 40% 28%
LESS POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
  RURAL URBAN
  POOR RICHER POOR RICHER
  MOD. TRAD. MOD. TRAD. MOD. TRAD. MOD. TRAD.
  (51) (159) (44) (97) (43) (177) (99) (212)
% LEFT 41% 31% 23% 26% 37% 30% 20% 22%

Table 47 CASTE, INCOME MODERNISM IN UNIVERSITY CONTEXTS

HIGHEST POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES MEDIUM POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES LEAST POLITICIZED UNIVERSITIES
HIGH CASTE RICH HIGH CASTE POOR LOW CASTE RICH LOW CASTE POOR HIGH CASTE RICH HIGH CASTE POOR LOW CASTE RICH LOW CASTE POOR HIGH CASTE RICH HIGH CASTE POOR LOW CASTE RICH LOW CASTE POOR
(61) (90) (164) (251) (134) (173) (363) (353) (69) (58) (156) (103)
38% 24% 36% 34% 31% 21% 24% 26% 21% 10% 29% 25%

Table 49 : SOCIAL CLASS DISTRIBUTIONS AMONG THREE SAMPLES

(By Self-Identification)
    UPPER MIDDLE MIDDLE LOWER MIDDLE WORKING & LOWER NA
THREE CITY SAMPLE
Students (56) 7% 63% 25% 0% 5%
Control Group (104) 6% 33% 45% 15%  
Entire sample (745) 8% 33% 30% 18% 2%
ALL-INDIA POLITICAL POLL
Students (51) 6% 61% 22% 2% 9%
Control Group (1639) 1% 23% 39% 33% 14%
Entire Sample (3537) 1% 23% 37% 35% 14%
ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES
Entire Sample (2044) 9% 81% 8% 2%  

Table 50 : POVERTY DISTRIBUTIONS AMONG FOUR SAMPLES

Per cent of respondents from families with incomes of Rs. 200 per month or less:
THREE CITY SAMPLE
Students (56) 36%
Control Group (104) 65%
Entire sample (745) 59%
ALL INDIA POLITICAL POLL
Students (51) 43%
Control Group (1639) 78%
Entire Sample (3637) 76%
ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES
Entire Sample (2044) 33%
ALLAHABAD
Entire Sample (377) 43%

THE THREE CITY SAMPLE control group was a subset of the entire sample selected out to represent non-students. They include all unmarried respondents under the age of thirty who were not students at the time of the 1st survey. The students were all single and the control group was designed to be comparable.

Table 51 DISTRIBUTIONS OF RURAL RESPONDENTS AMONG THREE SAMPLES

Percentage of respondents who are from rural areas:
ALL INDIA POLITICAL POLL
Students (51) 20%
Control Group (1639) 68%
Entire Sample (3637) 66%
ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES SAMPLE
Entire Sample (2044) 23%
ALLAHABAD
Entire Sample (377) 43%
POPULATION OF INDIA
(1961 Census)*   82%

Table 52 : CASTE DISTRIBUTIONS FOR TWO SAMPLES

Percentage of respondents who belong to the following castes
  ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES ALLAHABAD
  (2044) (377)
Brahmin 30% 37%
Kshattriya 13% 13%
Visha 9% 12%
Kayastha 8% 19%
Thakus - 1%
Scheduled & Sudra 3% 14%
Mixed - 1%
Other & Unidentifiable 15% 4%
NA 26% 7%

Table 53 : RELIGIOUS COMMUNITY DISTRIBUTIONS AMONG FOUR SAMPLES

Percentage of respondents who belong to the following religions
    HINDU MUSLIM CHRISTIAN OTHER SIKH NA
ALL INDIA POLITICAL POLL SAMPLE
Students (51) 86 10 2 0 0 2
Control Group (1639) 85 9 3 1 2 1
Entire Sample (3637) 85 9 3 1 1 1
THREE CITY SAMPLE
Students (56) 86 14 7 0 2 2
Control Group (104) 72 114 11 0 3 1
Entire Sample (745) 77 10 9 0 2 1
ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES
Entire Sample (2044) 77 10 8 3 1 2
ALLAHABAD
Entire Sample (377) 90 7 1 1 0 1
Population of India 1951   85% 10 2 1 2 0

Table 54 : POST MATRICULATION SCHOLARSHIPS EXPENDITURES OF STATE GOVERNMENT

  1958-1959 1959-1960 1960 1960-1961 1961
  Number of Scholarships Expenditure in Rupees Scholarships Expenditure in Rupees Scholarships
Scheduled Tribes Not Shown 2,388,691 6,104 3,095,414 6,856
Scheduled Castes Not Shown 14,387,638 38,618 16,791,441 41,922
Total 49,962 16,776,329 44,722 19,886,855 48,778

Table 55: EDUCATION ANONG THE SCHEDULED TRIBES (1961)

Source: Ministry of Education Form A. Data for Orissa were not available. Population of Scheduled Tribes in Jammu and Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh was negligible. Cited in Report of Education Commission, 1966, op.cit page 40.
State Percentage of Scheduled Tribes Population to Total population of state Percentage of enrollment of Scheduled tribes to total enrollment in higher education
Andhra 3.7 0.4
Assam 17.4 2.4
Bihar 9.1 0.2
Gujarat 13.3 0.2
Jammu & Kashmir -- --
Kerala 1.2 --
Madhya Pradesh 20.6 2.2
Madras 0.7 0.8
Maharashtra 6.1 0.6
Mysore 0.1 0.1
Orissa -- --
Punjab 0.1 0.2
Rajasthan 11.5 0.5
Uttar Pradesh -- --
W. Bengal 5.9 0.3

Table 56: SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF STUDENTS ADMITTED TO VOCATIONAL, TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIOITAL INSTITUTIONS IN 1965

Source: Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66, p. 119.F
  Insititute of Technology Regional Eng. Colleges Eng. Colleges Medical Colleges Agricultural Colleges Polytechnics I.T.T's Other Technical Institutions Total
  5 7 48 45 11 172 28 25 341
Origin  
Rural 12.8% 41.2% 34.1% 31.8% 59% 44.4% 58.8% 31.7% 42%
Urban 87.2% 58.8% 65.9% 41.0% 55.6% 55.6% 41.2% 68.3% 58%
Parental Occupation
Professional 7.2% 10.9% 8.7% 17.1% 4.9% 7.7% 4.2% 11.3%  
Service 61.2% 37.3% 34.6% 32.9% 27.4% 32.0% 18.6% 38.6% 32.5%
Business 20.5% 17.7% 34.6% 32.9% 27.4% 20.5% 12.5% 22.4% 18.5%
Agricultural 4.3% 23.9% 22.4% 21.4% 58.3% 28.6% 43.1% 16.0% 27.9%
Other 7.2% 10.2% 13.1% 10.7% 2.4% 12.6% 21.6% 11.7% 12.8%
Income of Parents
To Rs. 150 6.9% 32.9% 38.7% 30.8% 58.7% 55.8% 83.0% 27.9% 50.5%
Rs.151-300 13.8% 25.6% 29.1% 23.5% 26.8% 25.4% 15.3% 37.7% 25.2%
Rs.301-500 20.6% 23.8% 19.6% 10.7% 11.8% 11.8% 1.5% 20.8% 13.7%
Rs.500+ 58.7% 17.7% 12.6% 26.1% 3.8% 7.0% 0.2% 13.6% 10.6%
Number of students 2574 2425 15,144 2818 47,900 47,990 7,399 2,980 87,358

Table 57 : PARTY PREFERENCE

Per cent of respondents who prefer:
  ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES THREE CITY ALL INDIA POLL ALLAHABAD
DiBona		 POONA
Sirsikar
  1952 1961 1961 1964 1961
    Students Control Group Students Control Group    
  (2044) (56) (104) (51) (1639) (365) (434)
Congress 47% 16% 33% 37% 28% 31% 59%
CPI 21 5 6   5   5
PSP 13 2 14 14 2 2 7
Jana Sangh 2 14 1 0 1 10 14
Hindu Mahasabha 1 2 1 0 0 - -
Socialists * 2 1 2 1 3 -
Swatantra * * * 6 1 14 *
Other 1 0 3 14 5 10 7
None 2 48 39 12 9 34 20
    7 3 18 24 - -
NA 9 7 14 114 23 3 -
Not Decided   7 7 - - - -

* Did not exist at that time.

Table 58 : PARTY PREFERENCE BY LIKING DICTATORSHIP

Per cent who prefer Dictatorship to Democracy
  ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES DI BONA'S ALLAHABAD
Congress (928) 10% (112) 8%
CPI (417) 12% (15) 7%
H M (22) 32% (--) -
Jana Sangh (68) 214% (35) 17%
Muslim League (32) 28% (- ) -
PSP (261) 6% (6 ) *
None (--) - (121) 12%
Swatantra (--) - (13) *

* Too few to Percentage

Table 59 : SOCIAL BASIS AND ATTITUDAL CORRELATES OF APATHY

(Three City Sample)
  EDUCATION LESS THAN HIGH SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES OR MORE
SOCIAL CLASS WORKING & LOWER MIDDLE UPPER MIDDLE WORKING & LOWER MIDDLE UPPER MIDDLE
  (52) (52) (147) (133) (133) (145)
  33% 33% 40% 47% 47% 30%
Income: Rs. 1-100 100-200 300+ 1-100 100-200 300+
  (100) (70) (30) (33) (115) (124)
  42% 34% 30% 27% 34% 40%
"Do people like you have much influence on the government?" YES NO   YES NO  
  (24) (110)   (26) (236)  
  38% 34%   66% 35%  
"What is your opinion of whites in this country?" VERY GOOD GOOD FAIR VERY GOOD GOOD FAIR
  (25) (21) (51) (20) (57) (161)
  28% 52% 20% 65% 44% 33%
"How do you think the parliamentary system is working in India?" WELL FAIR POORLY WELL FAIRLY POORLY
  (44) (43) (16) (63) (31) (36)
  30% 26% 31% 59% 31% 33%
"How do you think the economic situation is now in India?" WELL-FAIR BAD VERY BAD WELL-FAIR BAD VERY BAD
  (18) (71) (84) (42) (162) (71)
  22% 42% 32% 31% 34% 52%

Table 60 : SOCIAL BACKGROUNDS AND APATHY AT THE ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES

Per cent who are apathetic about politics:
Parents' Income
  Under Rs. 100 (336) 71%
  To Rs. 300 (675) 75%
  To Rs. 500 (366) 79%
  To Rs. 1000 (329) 80%
  Rs 1000+ (238) 83%
Religion
  Hindu (1548) 77%
  Muslim (194) 72%
  Christian (161) 78%
  Sikh (27) 78%
  Other (57) 79%
Marital Status
  Married (303) 70%
  Unmarried (1652) 78%
Sex
  Male (1651) 76%
  Female (334) 82%
Size of Home Town
  Under 500 (140) 70%
  To 2000 (344) 72%
  To 10,000 (370) 76%
  To 50,000 (368) 77%
  over 50,000 (174) 81%
Age
  15-19 (770) 77%
  20-24 (982) 77%
  25-29 (126) 71%
  30+ (36) 81%

Table 61: SOCIAL BACKGROUNDS AND POLITICAL APATHY AT ALLAHABAD:

  Per cent of students who are politically apathetic:
Parents' Income
To Rs. 250 (177) 24%
Over Rs. 250 (125) 50%
Religion
Hindu (330) 34%
Muslim (24) 25%
Other (8) *
Marital status
Married (112) 23%
Unmarried (249) 39%
Sex
Male (245) 30%
Female (122) 45%
     
Size of home town
Village (155) 21%
Town (59) 40%
City (162) 43%
15-21 (232) 36%
over 22 (128) 30%
Father's Education
To Middle School (156) 26%
High school, over (207) 46%
Many relatives attend University?
Many (159) 18%
Few (142) 34%
None (83) 18%
Organizational Affiliation
Member of one or more (129) 40%
No membership (94) 27%
Have you any relatives or friends in high positions in the civil, military service or political life or the party in power?
Yes (254) 38%
No (122) 27%

Table 62: SOCIAL BACKGROUNDS AND POLITICAL APATHY IN BIHAR

(Singh-Inkeles sample of students from Ranchi and Jargshedur Univ.)
Father's Income
Up to 250 (71) 10%
Rs. 250+ (53) 1l%
Father's Education
None (82) 6%
1 to 5 Years (46) 11%
5 to 10 Years (50) 12%
Over 15 Years (22) _14%
Mother's Education
None () 6%
1 - 5 years () 15%
To 10 years () 22%
Age
15-19 (118) l4%
20 and over (82) 3%

Table 63: DESIRABLE JOB CHARACTERISTICS AND POLITICAL APATHY AT THE ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES.

"What opportunities is it important for the ideal job to offer you?"
  Per cent who are politically apathetic:
Provide me with a chance to earn a good deal of money.
Highly important (543) 83%
Medium importance (957) 82%
Little importance (551) 72%
Give me an opportunity to work with people rather than things.
Highly important (878) 76%
Medium importance (724) 82%
Little importance (555) 91%
Give me a chance to exercise leadership.
Highly important (505) 74%
Medium importance (692) 83%
Little importance (664) 87%

Table 64:DESIRABLE JOB CHARACTERISTICS AND POLITICAL APATHY AT ALLAHABAD

Per cent politically apathetic:
Would you accept a job doing manual labor?
Yes (245) 30%
No (122) 41%

Table 65: GRADES FOR ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND POLITICAL APATHY AT THE ELEVEN UNIVERSITIES

Intermediate Division:
First (281) 80%
Second (769) 77%
Third (354) 72%
M.A. Division
First (19) 90%
Second (37) 78%
Third (l9) 63%

Table 66. GRADES FOR ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND POLITICAL APATHY AT ALLAHABAD

Intermediate Division:
First (34) 47%
Second (224) 34%
Third (98) 27%

Table 67: MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION AND POLITICAL APATHY AT ALLAHABAD

Eng1ish medium (199) 40%
Hindi (100) 27%

Table 68: ELITISM AND POLITICAL APATHY AT THE ELEVEN UNIVESITIES

Per cent of students who are politically apathetic:
"The general public is not really qualified to vote on today's complex issues."
Agree (1509)  
Disagree (415) 7l;g
"Educational Standards will go down if English is replaced by Hindi"
Agree (156b)  
Disagree (515) 71
"College education should be free for everyone."
Agree (1551) 75
Disagree (561) 29

Table 69: ESTEEM FOR GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION AND POLITICAL APATHY IN ALLAHABAD

Per cent politically apathetic:
Government administrators are
Extremely high in prestige (165) 46%
Fairly high to low in prestige (158) 26%

Table 70: ATTIDUDINAL CORRELATES OF POLITICAL APATHY IN BIHAR

(Singh-Inkeles student sample)
Per cent politically apathetic:
Political information:
Low (65) 8%
High (155) 10%
Interest in Politics
Low (78) 12%
High (122) 8%
Over-all Modernity (variant scale)
Low (105) 13%
High (95) 5%
Nationality
Low (38) 3%
High (162) l%

Table 71 : POVERTY, POLITICAL APATHY AND MODERNISM IN BIHAR

  TRADITIONAL MODERN
Father's Income Under Rs. 250 Rs. 250 and more Under Rs. 250 Rs. 250 and more
  (30) (17) (41) (36)
Per cent apathetic 17% 12% 5% 11%

Table 72: BUREAUCRACY AND DEMOCRACY

(Cambridge sample)
Per cent who agree:
(1) Panchayats and grassroots democracy are the hopes for India's political development. 62%
(2) The parties in India are all corrupt. 43%
(3) Intelligent planning and effective administration of those plans will do more for India's progress than will partisan politics just now. 43%
(4) Most government decisions and plans for development are based on technical considerations and should be made by experts who are well informed and who are in a position to stand above politics. 87%
(5) The IAS is probably more corrupt than are elected politicians. 25%
(6) Parliamentary democracy will not prove adequate to mobilize India for the necessary social changes. 45%
(7) Government bureaucrats are less attentive to the needs of the Indian people than are politicians. 66%
(8) Civil servants are able to make better and longer-range plans than are politicians, who have to worry about getting re-elected. 60%
(9) In general, Indian bureaucrats are not as well informed as are political leaders. 38%

Table 73 : ATTITUDES TOWARD THE FUTURE OF INDIA'S POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

(Cambridge sample)
per cent who support:
(1) The present system, in spite of all its difficulties at the moment, is leading in the right direction end deserves full support. 42%
(2) A total and unqualified commitment to socialism is necessary -- far more than the present regime will undertake. 1l%
(3) At present there is too much unnecessary governmental interference with private industries. More freedom is necessary for their proper development. 52%
(4) A benevolent military or presidential rule should be established, with politicians removed from the national scene for 10 years or so. 35%
(5) A coalition national government at the centre, with participation of all the different parties. 9%
(6) Abolition of the party system, decentralization of political structures, as suggested by Jayaprakash Narayan. 19%

Table 74: PREFERRED FORM OF GOVERNMENT

Per cent who nave no preference for party for parliament
Prefer democracy Prefer Bureaucracy
(30) (26)
20% 32%

Table 75: SOCIAL BACKGROUND AND POLITICAL APATHY

(Cambridge sample)
Per cent who have no preference for party for Parliament
AGE
21-29 (47) 26%
30-39 (22) 14%
MARITAL STATUS
Single (41) 29%
Married (28) l1%
SIZE OF HOME TOWN
Up to 500,000 (29) 21%
500,000+ (38) 21%
OCCUPATION
Professional, academic (50) 14%
Student (16) 38%
FATHER'S EDUCATION
To matric (21) 9%
College grad (24) 33%
MA, Ph.d (20) 25%
PARENTS' INCOME
To Rs. 500 (18) 33%
Rs. 500+ (3?) 12%
PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS AS STUDENT
Yes (17) 18%
No (51) 24%